Watch Scott Pilgrim Vs The World Movie Online

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Edgar Wright (Hot Fuzz, Shaun of the Dead) has done the improbable: converted Bryan Lee O'Malley's insightful, satirical, emotional, and award-winning series of six graphic novels into a film with a runtime of under two hours. That's not the improbable part it's that, even having read all of the books, the film feels totally complete and still manages to capture the modern zeitgeist of the under-30 crowd with an ease I've never seen before. Scott Pilgrim vs. The World is a modern classic, an ode to the video game crowd and all of the self-centered slacker protagonists out there, presenting audiences with a visually astounding piece of cinema that may not make the most at the box office this weekend, but will surely be considered a cinematic milestone for years to come.

22-year-old Scott Pilgrim (Cera) is dating Knives Chau (Wong), a high school girl. He plays bass for Sex Bob-omb, his band named after enemies in the Mario video game series. But when Scott meets the literal girl of his dreams, Ramona Flowers (Winstead), everything changes for him. After ditching Knives, Scott must defeat Ramona's seven evil exes in order to continue dating her. Through a series of video-game influenced fights mixed with dialogue that completely gets the notions of love and relationships among modern 20-somethings, the film charges forward with breakneck speed and dazzling (yes, dazzling) visuals that are some of the most entertaining I've ever seen. This is a brutally inadequate plot summary, but I won't take away from the film by detailing the plot any further.

The casting here is outstanding. I've said before that other movies have been "perfectly cast," but this one tops every one in recent memory. Each actor absolutely disappears into his/her role: granted, not a tough task considering the casting director managed to miraculously find actors and actresses who both physically resemble their graphic novel counterpoints (to scary degrees, sometimes Aubrey Plaza, I'm looking at you) and effortlessly assume aspects of their character's personalities. Cera, the actor with whom I had the most concern before I saw the film, certainly used his stereotypical mumbling awkward shtick at times but he also plowed through this film with such a convincingly physical performance that it should effectively shatter the popular notion that he plays the same character in every movie.

My favorite Cera moment comes in the first fight scene a character challenges Scott in front of a huge crowd, and Scott instantly starts using martial arts. It's implied that Scott doesn't even know that he has these abilities, since everyone [including his sister Stacy (played by Anna Kendrick)] reacts in a shocked and confused manner when the fight breaks out. But then everyone just blindly accepts the fact that Scott can fight (very well, actually), and no one ever mentions it again. That's the kind of movie this is: one in which the Universal logo appears in 8-bit form, characters occasionally break into song, conjure up dueling dragons, get hurled through walls only to jump back up again, and bad guys burst into thousands of coins while video game scores pop up on screen.

I think this is one of the most perfect film adaptations of all time. Wright and co-writer Michael Bacall were able to incorporate O'Malley's original source material into the final film (sometimes word for word, as this awesome fan-created trailer shows), but and here's the important part they weren't afraid to divulge from the graphic novels. We hear cries from the internet on a daily basis demanding that writers and directors respect the source material for cinematic adaptations, and I understand that need to protect what's special about the property; it's the "if it ain't broke, don't fix it" mentality. But no one wants to see a literal direct translation from comic (or novel, etc.) to film with no differences at all, do they? Even if you do, it's impossible the nature of the various mediums don't allow for literal translations.

But sometimes filmmakers aim to try to recreate the source material anyway, even though it's almost always detrimental to the movie. Ask Zack Snyder: Watchmen was a brilliant graphic novel, but didn't reach its true potential as a film that could stand on its own because it was too concerned with not letting down ardent fans of the source material. Here, Wright and Bacall keep the absolute essence of the Scott Pilgrim tale and have no qualms adding or subtracting plot points when necessary to enhance the cinematic story. That's what I mean by "perfect adaptation" not a literal translation, but instead a complete and utter understanding of what made the original story great, coupled with skillful writing and the boldness to step out from the shadow of O'Malley's creation and add their own elements.

Wright brings his signature brand of insanity behind the camera, and creates one of the most visually intriguing films I've ever seen. No other movie comes close to the look of this film. It plays like a comic book, transitioning crazily through panels and split screens, with anime-inspired highlights during dramatic moments and Wright's patented whip pans and tilts serving as a perfect match for the style and humor of the film. I can't imagine this movie directed by anyone else, and Wright has secured a spot on my favorite filmmakers list with this film (he's three for three now, in my opinion). The editing is incredible (it should be nominated for an Academy Award, but probably won't), and the pacing is unrelenting, at one point taking us through multiple places during the course of a single sentence.

Music has massive importance in this film, providing another bridge to connect to younger audiences. The fictional Sex Bob-omb's music was performed by Beck, and Broken Social Scene doubled for an opposing group during Battle of the Bands sequences. But the best song of the film belongs to Metric, a real band subbing in for The Clash at Demonhead (Scott's ex is the lead singer of this band in the movie). (Check out the entire soundtrack, now streaming on Spinner.com.) Not only is the band music important in order to convince us that we're listening to a "real" band on screen, but the notion of music itself is a big part of the Scott Pilgrim universe. As the camera floats through clubs and parties, you'll hear background characters talking about how a certain band's "first album is so much better than their first album" or, after watching a band perform live, someone say "you should see them play live." All of these little asides are O'Malley's, Bacall's, and Wright's way o f commenting on hipster culture an interesting thing to point out, since most people seem to associate this film with hipsters and the movie clearly rails against the most annoying subset of them.

Scott Pilgrim vs. The World is an achievement on technical and stylistic levels, a personal movie that comfortably locks down its place as a modern classic for my generation and ensuring cult classic status as soon as the current hype wears off. I'd go as far as to say that future filmmakers will cite this film as inspiration much like the current generation cites the original Star Wars. This one's a game changer, friends, and it's a flawless victory. Until next time

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Learning And Communicative Strategies

Learning and communicative strategies

Introduction

Communicative strategies are systematic techniques employed by a speaker to express his meaning when faced with some difficulty and the difficulty here refers to the speaker's inadequate command of the language used in the interaction (Faerch & Kasper, 1983:16). On the other hand, the term learning strategies has been defined as "the higher-order skills which control and regulate the more task-specific or more practical skills" (Nisbet & Shucksmith,1986:26). Based on the previously mentioned definitions, it could be said that learning and communicative strategies refer to language learning behaviors that contribute directly or indirectly to learning. I am not very concerned here with the definition of the two terms as much as I am concerned with the fact that most if not all non-native speakers and second-language learners use these strategies throughout their second/foreign language learning journey. They tend to use them to compensate for their lack of sufficient languag e knowledge and to get themselves out of troubles when interacting in the target second/foreign language. These are only some of the short term benefits of using learning and communicative strategies. In fact, the successful use of these strategies can promote longer term language development.

In the first part of this paper, I will provide examples on some of the commonly used strategies and at the same time, I will focus on the ways in which these strategies promote the language learning process and the development of the learner's speaking skill. I will also highlight the short and long tem benefits of using both learning and communicative strategies in learning and developing speaking skill. In the second part of the paper, I will show how the knowledge of learning and communicative strategies has influenced me to change my old style of teaching the speaking, and how it has encouraged me to adopt a set of new methods of teaching that make utmost use of these strategies. Finally, I will give examples on some of the speaking activities that are based, in some ways, on these strategies, and are designed to promote and develop the learner's speaking skill.

Part One:

Teaching writing skill has been given the priority over teaching speaking skill in almost all educational syllabus and plans and the case in my country, Oman, is no exception. Writing skill has been considered the most important especially in the area of second/foreign language teaching. On the other hand, speaking skill has neither been given sufficient focus in our teaching syllabi nor has it been represented fairly in our classrooms as opposed to the other skills. In my context, most people in general and educationalists in particular, seem to have taken this skill for granted; maybe because they think it is an easy one and that almost everyone can speak. Speaking is, however, a skill which deserves much more attention in both first and second language. I have chosen to write about this skill because I know very well how important it is as a means of communication especially, for second/foreign language learners. Throughout my teaching of English as a foreign language, I noticed that speaking was the area of weakness for the majority of my students. On the part of teachers, not so much time was devoted to teach this skill, and on the part of the curriculum designers, not so much effort was exerted to promote the development of this skill. Consequently, speaking was regarded by the students as an obstacle in the way of learning English rather than as an important skill. In the following sections, I will attempt to show how this problem can be addressed by the use of some strategies.

1/ Examples on some learning and communicative strategies used by ESL and EFL students

So many studies and research have been conducted in both areas learning strategies and communicative strategies, and many researchers and linguists have been involved. Consequently, different definitions and classifications of strategies have been stated. However here, I will focus on the classification of communicative strategies suggested by Faerch and Kasper (1983), and on the classification of learning strategies suggested by Wenden and Rubin (1987). I will also show how each set of strategies are used by ESL and EFL learners. I have chosen the previous classifications because they confirm with the knowledge of strategies I acquired throughout my teaching experience.

Faerch and Kasper suggest that communicative strategies are classified into two categories each of which is classified or comprised of other subcategories. The first category is avoidance behavior and this consists of formal reduction and functional reduction strategies. Formal reduction strategies could be phonological, morphological, syntactic and lexical strategies. Learners tend to use formal reduction strategies either to avoid making errors and/or they want to increase their fluency (Faerch& Kasper 1983: 40). On the other hand, functional reduction strategies include reduction of speech act and reduction of propositional context and these two are used by learners to reduce their communicative goals in order to avoid problems in interactions (ibid: 43). Achievement strategies are also called compensatory strategies and they consist of code switching, inter/intralingual, cooperative and non-linguistic strategies. These strategies are used by learners to expand their co mmunicative resources in interactions (ibid:45). The following figure has been designed based on what was mentioned above:

Wenden and Rubin classified learning strategies into cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies are used by learners when they deal with steps, operations, or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials (Wenden & Rubin,1987:23) and these strategies include clarification/verification, guessing/inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorizing and monitoring. On the other hand, metacognitive strategies are used when the learner deals with knowledge about cognitive process and regulation of cognition. These strategies consist of choosing, prioritizing, self-management, advance preparation, advance organization, directed attention, selected attention and delayed production. The following figure has been designed based on the information mentioned above:

2/ The short term benefits of training learners on the use of learning and communicative Strategies

Research and theory in second language learning strongly suggest that good language learners use a variety of strategies to assist them in gaining command over new language skills. In her study of five Chicano students who were learning English, Wong-Fillmore as quoted in Wenden & Rubin, (1987:27), identified some learning strategies used by successful language learners. Wong-Fillmore found that by using a few well chosen strategies, learners could continue to participate in speaking activities (ibid: 21). Moreover, O'Malley (1983), reports on an experiment in which students received training on the use of learning strategies with three language tasks; vocabulary, listening skill and speaking. His major conclusion was that strategy training was effective for listening and speaking, but not for vocabulary.

One of the major short term benefits of the use of learning strategies is the fact that they help learners to compensate for their lack of adequate language knowledge. Bygate (1987), states that the use of these strategies can bridge the gab between knowledge of the rules and the students' ability to express their own meaning. In other words, these strategies help learners to practice using acceptable language with reasonable fluency and reasonable ability to convey meanings and express opinions. On that basis, it could be inferred that training learners on using these strategies would help them a lot in their language learning. Language learners will not be hesitant or afraid of being involved in an interaction where they do not have sufficient language knowledge for it. Bygate adds that being trained to use learning strategies helps the learner to succeed in autonomous interaction. According to this, using such strategies in learning represents a transitional process whe re control of learning is moved from teacher to learners, leaving the learner with responsibility for his own thinking and learning. In addition, Wenden& Rubin (1987), mention that learning strategies help learners to better utilize the experience they bring to their language class. As a result, learners grow appreciation of their power ability and become critically reflective of the conceptual context of their learning.

The efficiency of communicative strategies training in learning languages has been proved in so many occasions. For instance, Spilka (as cited in Faerch & Kasper 1983:10), points that some trained French learners tend to use specific phrases in order to avoid liaison in French; to avoid French partitive en, the learners may produce the specified form J'ai trios pommes, rather than J'en ai trios. So, the French learners are making use of the avoidance strategy which is one of the communicative strategies. In another occasion, Kasper (1983:43), gave some examples of how trained German learners of English reduce their IL performance with respect to politeness making. Moreover, Faerch (1983:43), gave other examples of speech act reduction, in which learners in conversation with native speakers often do not use initiating acts (reduction strategy). Based on all that has been mentioned, we could say that strateg ies be they learning or communicative ones, are important for language learning for they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. I shall now move to discuss the long term benefits of the use of learning strategies.

3/ The long term benefits of training language learners on the use of learning and communicative strategies

As we have seen previously, there are so many short benefits for training learners on using learning and communicative strategies. Likewise, there are other long term benefits for strategy training as well. Faerch and Kasper (1986:189), report the findings of a study where an attempt was made to train learners to use interaction strategies (some of the communicative strategies). They were Danish learners of English and the training for strategy use lasted for three months. The findings were that:

a) Middle proficiency level learners made considerable progress in using interaction strategies.

b) Low and high proficiency learners made less progress.

g) The general attitude in the class towards errors and towards risk-taking had changed. More learners accepted the need to make an attempt even if they did not get the right answer.

Based on the findings of this study, we could say that training learners to use communicative strategies raises their confidence and encourages them to participate in different communicative interactions even when they don't have enough language for it (e.g. when they don't have the answer for a question). In another study, Knowles (1975), finds that training learners to use these strategies helps them to develop the attitude that language is a lifelong process and to acquire the skills of self-directed learning. Most importantly, he points out that communicative strategies help learners to be equipped with the skills necessary to continue learning on their own when they leave formal education experience.

Many other studies have been carried out by different researchers and the long term benefits of communicative and learning strategies training have been proved. For instance, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) looked at learning strategies used both by ESL and EFL students and they found that training students to use these strategies helped them become more aware of the whole process of learning a second language. Based on the findings of one of their studies, Wenden & Rubin (1987), state that training learners to use learning strategies helps learners to better utilize the experience they bring to their language class and help them as well, to become critically reflective of the conceptual context of their learning.

Part Two:

1/ The influence of learning strategies on my teaching style of speaking

I have previously mentioned that speaking is an undervalued skill in Oman. All focus and emphasis are placed on the other skills as if the speaking skill does not exist or as if acquiring it has been taken for granted. Out of my own experience as an English teacher, I have noticed that the Omani students' biggest difficulty when learning English falls in the area of speaking. As teachers, we have not been working so much on this skill due to the fact that there are no formal speaking tests in the whole low-intermediate, intermediate and high-intermediate levels of teaching English in most of the academic institutions in Oman in general and in the Language Centre at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in particular. We were basically preparing our students to be able to pass the final test which normally contained listening, reading and writing only. Personally, I used to rely on specific activities in my speaking classes and these activities were not always suitable for my stud ents' levels of English. However, since it was "the speaking skill", I did not bother to search for more activities or even try to design a simple syllabus for teaching it.

Having read about learning and communicative strategies and having known about their crucial role in promoting and developing the learning process in general and the verbal interaction skills in particular, I have decided to adopt a new teaching approach that makes full use of these strategies. I have realized that the new teaching capacities should include identifying students' learning and communicative strategies, conducting training on these strategies, and helping learners become more independent. That is because when students take more responsibility in the speaking activities, more learning occurs, and both teachers and learners feel more successful and satisfied. Teachers including me, (especially when teaching speaking) should attempt to discover what strategies their students are already using by interviewing them or questioning them about the strategies employed for specific language learning tasks (Wenden & Rubing, 1987). And then, they could direct them to uti lise learning and communicative strategies for a variety of speaking activities. Metacognitive strategies such as self-management and self-monitoring can be practised in communicative situations in which the learner wishes to gain the maximum amount of comprehensible speech from others (ibid). Moreover, teachers can provide students with practice in useful strategies for the negotiation of conversational encounter outside of class. They can also suggest alternative strategies for organising and storing information and they can encourage students to consider which strategies work best for them. O'Malley and Chamot (as quoted in Macdonough,1995:122) summarise what has been previously mentioned by stating that the Cognitive Academic Learning Language Approach consists of five phases:

1/ Preparation: develop student awareness of different strategies.

2/ Presentation: develop student knowledge about strategies.

3/ Practice: develop student skills in using strategies for academic learning.

4/ Evaluation: develop student ability to evaluate their own strategy use.

5/ Expansion: develop transfer of strategies to new tasks.

According to these phases, teachers should go through several steps while teaching speaking tasks in order to make sure that students would get benefits from them and would develop their speaking skill. We should base our explanation of the tasks as well as our instructions on the students' communicative and learning strategies, and we should try focus our activities on developing these strategies. Furthermore, we could provide students with various activities that would enable them to use their strategies in new speaking tasks and to evaluate their use of these strategies.

Macaro (2001:176) gave another way of training students on using and developing their strategies. The following figure shows the sequence of steps that are to be followed by teachers in order to best utilise their students' learning and communicative strategies while teaching English skills in general and speaking in particular.

Another important aspect every teacher should take into account is materials and syllabus design. In Oman, both syllabus and curriculum design are prescribed by the Ministry of Education (for schools), or the Ministry of Higher Education for some colleges and universities. Teachers have an almost passive role in that process. On the other hand, researchers and educational inspectors play the major role and impose their ideas and opinions which are not always in favor of the learning process, learning situations and students. Teachers are not allowed to innovate or create additional materials and they are severely penalized if they deviate from the prescribed curriculum. It is really a hard task for the teacher to change or at least modify this traditional curriculum but is not impossible. Teachers should attempt to change such curriculum gradually and they should have their role in the curriculum design task. They should be creative, eclectic and adaptive in terms of produ cing educational materials. Educational authorities on the other hand, should take into consideration that aspects of learning and communicative strategies are to be incorporated in each and every syllabus or curriculum. Finally, it really makes a great difference in teaching and learning if teachers bear in mind the fundamental knowledge of learning and communicative strategies while teaching.

2/New teaching approach and examples on some speaking activities

In Oman, most if not all the teaching approaches adopted by teachers seem to be teacher oriented. Teachers are doing all the work; they teach, explain, ask, provide answers and help students. The students' role is passive in one way or another; they are being spoon-fed throughout the academic year without being asked to contribute to their studying activities or even being taught how to do it. Being a teacher in that country, my teaching style was influenced to a great extent with the teaching methods used there. For instance, in my speaking class, I used to do all the talk, control activities, come up with ideas, and choose the suitable speaking tasks. I did not use to allow students to express their ideas and if I did, it would be to a very limited extent. Even when my students were giving a presentation or performing a dialogue, I used to interfere either by giving my own opinion or by correcting them every now and then. It is only now after knowing about learning and c ommunicative strategies that I have realised the pressing need for some teaching strategies especially in the area of speaking. I have realised also that it is the turn of the students to do most of the talking in the speaking class, while the teacher's main function is to provide them with maximum amount of meaningful practice. In this section, I will attempt to give some examples on speaking activities and show how they are best taught taking into account the students' learning and communicative strategies.

a/ Dialogue and negotiation

Dialogue and negotiation present the language as directly in the contexts in which they are most commonly used, and permit the learners to practise it in the same way, thus establishing a firm link between language and situation (Byme, I976:2 I). My teaching of dialogue was a kind of memorisation task; I used to type the dialogues or negotiation task and give copies to the students. All that they had to do was to read them, memorise them and present them in front of the class. Taking the students' learning and communicative strategies into account, I should do some prespeaking activities and prepare the learners in terms of vocabulary items and tenses that are going to be used throughout the dialogue/negotiation. This will direct their attention to the task and will help them operate their planning strategies so that they are ready to some extent to tackle the task. During the task, I would interfere where possible to provide the learners with suggestions and to give some alternatives. I would not focus so much on correcting their mistakes since I am concerned in the first place with developing their communicative abilities. I would rather compliment and praise the good performance in order to create a stimulus and motivation for the rest of the learners to improve their work. I guess this way would work well with my students since they are very afraid of making mistakes and they are easily motivated by praise, compliments and marks.

b/ Imaginary situation

I did not really make use of this task although it is very important in developing the students' ability to be involved in problemsolving tasks, to improvise, guess and brain storm. I was not really aware of it and of its role in promoting speaking skill. However now, after realising the importance of this task, I would try to prepare and design some imaginative tasks that are culturally appropriate and related to the learners' day to day life. For instance, I might ask them to imagine that there is a specific problem in their village (e.g. water is getting salty due to overuse) that needs to be solved and then, will ask them to come up with solutions and to try to talk about their own solutions in front of the class. Since the topic represents a very serious problem due to the scarcity of water sources in Oman, most of the students will be involved and will participate in the discussion. I might ask them to discuss it together in groups or I might ask individual students to talk about and justify their opinions. Of course, there are so many other exciting and relevant tasks (to the students' daily life activities) that could be made use of in order to hook the students' attention, sustain their interest in the subject and appeal to their needs and desires.

c/ Roleplay and Narration

I taught this task before and I noticed that students liked very much especially when it is incorporated in a narrative task. I used to give my students a story and ask them to play the roles of the different characters; it was really very simple and fun. Actually, it was another way to train them to memorise some language phrases. If I am to do this task now, I would ask the students to compose their own story (in an attempt to focus on past tense for example), and then to act it out in front of their colleagues. I strongly think that this task would work very well with most of the students even the weak ones because they would be working in groups and they will have the chance to choose the role that they really like and that suits their linguistic ability. While performing this task, the learners will be practising speaking, prioritising and choosing their role, and memorising some language chunks. In other words, they will be practising the language and developing thei r learning and communicative skills.

Conclusion

The research evidence that has been mentioned throughout this paper proves to some extent the short and long term benefits of using strategies in learning second/foreign language. It also suggests that some learners are using more strategies more effectively than others. For this reason, teachers and researchers should work closely together to discover the role of motivation in learner strategy use (Macaro, 2001). It has also been shown that strategy training is effective in promoting a great predisposition towards language learning and a framework which enables the learner to take more responsibility for their learning in the immediate, medium and long term. In this regard, policymakers should be closely involved in supporting teachers' effort by facilitating local and national programs of strategy training. They should not set up learning frameworks (curriculum, syllabus) which place obstacles in the way of teachers to adapt their teaching to the strategy-related needs o f their learners. They should rather allow teachers some freedom so that they can be creative in terms of designing tasks and activities that would appeal to their students because teachers are the ones who are in direct contact with the students and therefore, they should be the ones who know exactly what their students need. On the hand, teachers should bear in mind that the strategies which plan and evaluate learning and the strategies assumed by the learners who go out and make contact with language outside the classroom are the ones that teachers should increasingly tum their attention to (ibid).

Bibliography

Bygate, Martin.(1987). Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Faerch, Clans & Kasper, Gabriele.(1983). Strategies in Interlanguage Communication. London: Longnnan,

Byrne, Donn.(1976). Teaching Oral English. London: Longman

Faerch, G. and Kasper, G.(1986).Strategic competence in foreign language teachin. Aarhus University: Aarhus University Press.

Knowles, M.(1975).Self Directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. Chicago: Association Press.

Macaro, Ernesto.(2001). Learning strategies in foreign and second language classroom. Great Britain: CPD, Ebbw Vale

Macdonough, Steven H.(1995). Strategy and Skill in Learning a Foreign Language. London: Edward Arnold, a division of Hodder Headline PLC.

Nisbet, John & Shucksmith, Janet.(1986).Learning Strategies. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Plc.

O'Malley, IM & Russ, R.P, et al.( 1983). A study of Learning Strategies for Acquiring Skills in Speaking and Understanding English Language. Rosslyn, Va: InterAmerica Research Associates.

O'Malley, J.M and Chamot, A.U.(1990).Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wenden, Anita & Rubin, Joan.(1987).Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Cambridge: Prentice Hall International.

Rivers, Wilga M. (1972). Speaking in Many Tongues, Essays in Foreignlanguage Teaching. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

WongFillmore, L.(1976).The Second Time Around. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.

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Tamea Sisco

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to review the clinical efficacy if using narcotic antagonism in the treatment of opiate and alcohol dependence. While there is a plethora of evidence for opiate dependence the research on alcohol dependence is more sparse. However, the method called rapid detoxification that relies upon the use of narcotic antagonism both oral and intravenous may be enhanced by amino-acid precursor and enkephalinase inhibition. Thus this paper serves two purposes: 1) a brief review of the literature 2) clinical evidence showing the synergy between narcotic antagonism and amino-acid therapy.

Alcohol

It is important to begin by reminding ourselves that we do not fully understand the major effects of alcohol on the brain. There are no easily identified, highly specific "alcohol receptors". In addition, alcohol exerts an impact on almost all brain chemicals, making-it difficult to determine which, if any, are key to the intoxicating or subsequent craving phenomena associated with this drug (Ticku and Mehta, 1995). To make matters even more complicated, the initial administration of alcohol has different effects on brain chemicals than are seen after repeated administration of this drug and all these effects are likely to be different at different doses.

Despite these complexities, there are at least three theories about how a drug that affects opiatesmight have an important impact in the treatment of alcoholism.

First, alcohol, at least indirectly, does affect the brain's natural opiate-like or endorphin system. So, even if the impact is modest, it makes sense that any drug that alters the functioning of the natural brain opiates could alter the effects that alcohol exerts on the brain itself. There are data to indicate that one brain opiate substance; leucine-enkephalin in animals and beta-endorphin in humans is decreased in amount in the presence of alcohol (Gennazanni et al., 1982). It is theorized that this could be the result of an inhibition of the production of this opiate by alcohol itself. Similarly, another study documented that if opioid peptides are administered to an animal before alcohol is given, that animal is less likely to consume alcohol (Ho et al., 1982). Consistent with these observations is an early study showing that animals with prior intake of alcohol are more likely to maintain their abstinence when given morphine. These studies, along with the ill-advise d turn of the century practice of administering morphine to alcoholics to attempt to maintain abstinence from alcohol, are consistent with some level of interaction between alcohol and the opiate systems.

A second area of support for the potential interaction between alcohol and the opiate systems occurs through studies of stress. Acute stresses do increase the level of the body's natural opiates. At least theoretically, if stress (either from the environment or from heavy drinking) occurs regularly enough, it is possible that the body becomes used to having higher levels of opiates. Thus, when stress levels decrease (either in the environment or through abstinence) the body might crave the higher levels of endogenous opiates to which it has become accustomed. This discomfort might cause symptoms that make it more likely that the individual will then go back to his or her usual drug of abuse, in this instance alcohol. Consistent with this hypothesis is the observation that animals placed in a high-stress situation are likely to increase their selection of alcoholic beverages, but also that this alcohol-seeking behavior can be blocked by fairly modest doses of naloxone (Ross , Hartmann and Geller 1976)

The third, and perhaps the most attractive, of the theories focuses on the hypothesized brain reward system. A number of investigators feel that most pleasurable experiences, including the acute effects of most drugs, are mediated through the actions of the brain chemical dopamine, especially in a part of the brain called the nucleus accumbens. This area is part of a complex of the brain called the meso-limbic system. Thus, it is possible that the pleasurable effects of alcohol occur, at least in part, through mechanisms that are similar to those that contribute to the pleasurable effects of opiates. If this is true, then a drug that blocks some of the effects of opiates could have a beneficial effect by decreasing the rewarding effects of alcohol, and this elimination of the expected reinforcements might even decrease craving (Meyers and Melclior, 1977).

However, just because a theory makes sense does not mean that it is correct. Nonetheless, there are good reasons to consider whether an opiate antagonist drug might have some beneficial effects in the treatment of alcohol dependence. After a twelve year battle the US FDA approved the use of naltrexone/Trexan for opioid detoxification, then in the mid-nineties, the same drug was approved for the treatment of alcoholism under the name Rivera.

Clinical Trials for Alcoholism

Thus, in this brief review, we focus on the few double-blind trials available. Voipicelli (1992) and colleagues reported on a 12-week trial of 50 milligrams of naltrexone per day in 34 alcohol-dependent outpatient men, comparing results with 36 men treated with placebo. All individuals received the usual treatment for alcohol rehabilitation, and everyone was evaluated weekly. By the end of the twelve weeks, 23 percent of naltrexone treated patients had relapsed into heavy regular drinking, compared to 54 percent of the patients on placebo. These data indicate naltrexone may have been especially helpful for patients who had "slipped" and begun to drink; almost half of them were likely to return to abstinence if they were on naltrexone, while the same is true for only five percent of those treated with placebo. The authors suggested it is possible the naltrexone blocked part of the high or reinforcing effect of alcohol, making it easier for people who had initially returned to drinking do not go on to escalating doses of alcohol. At the same time, the study also reported a possible decrease in craving for alcohol with this narcotic antagonist (Volpicelli et al., 1992).

Also, O'Malley and colleagues (1992) reported on 97 alcoholic men and women, 46 of who received 50mg per day of naltrexone and the remainder placebo over 12 weeks. While the project was complex and other questions were being tested, those on naltrexone demonstrated improved rates of abstinence and lower rates of alcohol intake and problems if they had returned to drinking.

Other more recent studies include both positive and negative reports but the consensus favors the limited use of narcotic antagonism in the treatment of alcoholism (consensus report, 1996) The following list is representative of over 5,000 papers on the subject since the first work of associates in the early 70s showing the anti-alcohol effect of naloxone in mice and rats (reduction of sleep-time, delay in withdrawal reactions, reduced ethanol intake, and reduction of ethanol-induced dependence).

Positive reports in humans include (Kranzler et al., 1998; King et al., 1997; Mason et al., 1994,Oslin et al., 1997; O'Malley et al., 1996; Volpicelli et al., 1995; O'Malley et al., 1996; Volpicelli et al., 1995; King et al., 1997; and, O'Malley et al., 1992). The most up to date and complete review of the subject is by Herz from the Department of Neuropharmacology at the Max- Planck Institute for Psychiatry in Germany (1997).

In terms of negative reports, we believe a reason for non-compliance resides in the very nature of the pharmacological and physiological basis of the use of narcotic antagonism in treating either opiates or alcohol. Craving behavior is distinct from euphoria and different set of mechanism are involved. Blocking of euphoria represents the occupancy of a narcotic antagonist, naloxone, on mu opiate receptors and reducing craving is due to dopamine occupancy on dopamine-D, receptors.

Opiates

. .

The use of heroin continues to increase and is estimated that eight million people in the world (0.14%) abuse opiates. The region with the highest annual prevalence (2%) are South East and South West Asia and based on the National Household Survey, the annual prevalence of heroin use in the United States is 0.3% with a rising trend of heroin use in the last 2 years (Van der Burgh (1999).

New pharmacological treatments for heroin addiction include drugs that reduce withdrawal symptoms and agents that are given during the maintenance phase of treatment. A variety of different types of pharmacological agents (opioid agonists, opioid antagonists and alpha 2- adrenoreceptor agonists ) have been extensively studied.

Clinical Trials for Opiates

In a review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies evaluating the use of naltrexone asa maintenance agent, Kurchmayer et al ( 2001).found a tendency in favor if naltrexone but concluded that there is not sufficient evidence to evaluate the efficacy of naltrexone treatment for opioid dependence. Shufman et al. (1994) in a double-blind, controlled design evaluated the efficacy of naltrexone in reducing opioid positive mine tests during a 12-week trial and found naltrexone to be superior to placebo. Similarly, on a multi-center, randomized controlled trial, Hollister (1978), examined 170 opiate-dependent patients at a 9 month follow-up, and found that the group treated with Naltrexone had more opiate - free urine tests and reduced attrition rates. Finally, Hulse and Basso (1999) evaluated treatment outcome at 6 months for 100 heroin dependent patients maintained on naltrexone and found that complete abstinence was not characteristic of many of those patients conti nuing on naltrexone, in spite of its complete blocking of heroin reinforcement. Thus, periodic heroin use during naltrexone maintenance may occur but this periodic use did not prevent successful outcomes for those maintained on naltrexone.

In more recent years the partial opiate mu receptor agonist, buprenorphine has been used as opioid substitution therapy for opiate dependence in France since 1996 (Obadia et. al. 2001) .It is awaiting approval in the United States as a sublingual combination tablet with Naloxone ( Fudala et. al. 1998).

Additionally, Clonidine and lofexidine atreaopha, receptor agonists and are the most commonly used non-opiate drugs for detoxification from opiates in the US and the UK, respectively. . Activation of the presynaptic alpha 2 results in the inhibition of the sympathetic outflow associated with the opiate withdrawal syndrome.( Gonzalez et. al. 2002)

Rapid Detox

The Against Medical Advice (AMA) rate (the rate at which patients or addicts leave treatment before treatment goals are reached) among hardcore addicts even today approaches 90 percent. The basic concept of a relatively new approach called "rapid detoxification method" is to provide the patient with a pure narcotic antagonist to block the opiate-induced euphoriant effects. At the San Antonio Methadone Clinic according to its director J. T. Payte using this approach results in recidivism rate of over 99 percent due to non-compliance. Once again we believe the noncompliance issue is due to the fact that while the narcotic antagonist blocks the opiate or alcohol induced euphoria (O'Malley et al., 1992 and Volpicelli et al., 1992), the drug has little effect on craving behavior. Moreover, Kirchmayer and associates ( 2002) performed a recent systematic review on the efficacy of naltrexone maintenance treatment in opioid dependence and concluded that from the available clinical trials performed up until 2002 , there is insufficient evidence to justify the use of naltrexone in the maintenance treatment of opioid addicts.

We decided to test the hypothesis that possibly by combining a narcotic antagonist and amino-acid therapy consisting of an enkephalinase inhibitor and neurotransmitter precursors to promote neuronal dopamine release might enhance compliance in methadone patients' rapidly' detoxified with the narcotic antagonist Trexan, In this regard, Thanos et. al. (2001) and associates found

increases in the dopamine D2 receptors (DRD2 ) via adenoviral vector delivery of the DRD2 gene into the nucleus accumbens, significantly reduced both ethanol preference (43%) and alcohol intake (64%) of ethanol preferring rats, which recovered as the DRD2, returned to baseline levels. This DRD2 overexpression similarly produced significant reductions in ethanol non-preferring rats, in both alcohol preference (16%) and alcohol intake (75%). This work further suggests that high levels ofDRD2 may be protective against alcohol abuse ( Blum et. al. 1990, and Nobleet. al. 1991). The DRD2 Al allele has also been shown to associate with heroin addicts in a number of studies O. Moreover, there are a number of studies utilizing amino -acid and enkephalinase inhibition therapy showing reduction of alcohol, opiate, cocaine and sugar craving behavior in human trials. Over the last decade, a new rapid method to detoxify either methadone or heroin addicts utilizing Trexan (Dupont, Delawa re) sparked interest in many treatment centers throughout the United States, Canada, as well as many countries on a worldwide basis.

METHODS

SUBJECTS

We tested our combined therapeutic approach at the San Antonio Methadone Clinic with 1012 hardcore addicts who had abused euphoriants up to 30 years. Entry into the study included both male and female patients who were considered hardcore addicts as diagnosed using the DSM-IV criteria for heroin/opiate dependence. There were X males and X females in the 1000 patients in the non-experimental group and X males and X females in the experimental group. Each patient signed a consent form and the project received IRB approval from the San Antonio Methadone Clinic and from PATH Medical Foundation IRB which approved future research in this area. ( registration # IRB00002334).

RAPID -DETOX METHODOLOGY

Each patient (n=1000) was pre-evaluated by first receiving an injection of 0.4-0.8 mg. of Narcan and their withdrawal was assessed. If they passed this first test, they were administered an oral dose of 12.5 mg of Trexan and again evaluated for withdrawal symptoms over a ninety minute period. If the patient passed this test, they were given 50 mg Trexan. The 1000 patients received the 50 mg. Trexan daily until the patient relapsed. , . .

AMINO-ACID THERAPY

For this study twelve patients were selected, those selected received along with Trexan a combination of amino acids. The number of days without a relapse or self-report of refusal to take either the Trexan alone or in combination with the amino-acid formula was counted. Each patient (with some degree of failure) was evaluated on a daily basis either via phone or in a face-to-face contact.

COMMENT

Based on this research we suggest that the addition of the anti-craving formula significantly reduced the craving for opiates (possibly alcohol) and, therefore, seems to be important in assisting those hardcore opiate addicts in preventing relapse - especially in conjunction with the narcotic antagonist Trexan. Naloxone binding was measured in frontal gray cortex, caudate nucleus, amygdala, hippocampus' and cerebella cortex in human alcoholic and non-alcoholic subjects. Binding was found to be higher in alcoholics than in non-alcoholics for all of the brain regions examined. When subjects were grouped by the presence or absence of the DRD2AI allele, [3H] naloxone binding was lower in all brain regions examined of subjects with the A1 allele than in those without this allele, with a significant difference in the caudate nucleus. According to Ritchie and Noble (1996), these findings suggest one of the consequences of chronic alcohol exposure in humans is an enhancement of th e brain opioid receptor system. However, the decreased [3H] naloxone binding with the A1 allele may be a compensatory response to their decreased dopaminergic modulation of opiate receptor activity.

Thus coupling amino-acid therapy and enkephalinase inhibition while blocking the delta receptors with a pure narcotic antagonist may be quite promising as a novel method to induce rapid detox in chronic methadone patients. This may also have important ramifications in the treatment of both opiate and alcohol dependent individuals, especially as a relapse prevention tool. It may also be interesting to further test this hypothesis with the sublingual combination of the partial opiate mu receptor agonist Buprenorphrine.

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Nova Scotia'S Westry Mine Tragedy

Introduction

The Westray Mine Tragedy was a disaster that occurred on the 9th day of May- a Saturday in Plymouth - Nova Scotia. It was found that methane gas exploded in a section of the mine and caused the subsequent death of twenty six miners. The paper shall examine some of the ethical issues surrounding this case study and recommendations for the Canadian Mining Industry shall be done.

Case summary

The Westry Mine was opened in the year 1991, in the month of September. It was warmly received by both local residents and politicians. However, after opening the mine, numerous workers complained that the company was trying to cut back on costs by failing to take their employees through safety training or by giving them the right equipments. Besides this, there were a number of accusations made by the latter group that the mine was engaging in negligent behavior during mine inspections that could even amount to criminal behavior. One union official commented in a March 9th 1992 report that he was worried about the possibility of death in that mine. (O'Malley, 2002)

On May 9th, methane gas sparked off an explosion that led to one of the most disastrous occurrences in Canada's mining history. News of the explosion caused numerous members of the media to camp outside Plymouth in order to cover the goings on within the mine.

On the day of the explosion, and in the next few days that followed, the bodies of fifteen miners were found following the aggressive search and recue efforts. Thereafter, these efforts were then changed into rescue and recovery efforts but with time, the conditions got worse and the rescue mission was abandoned thus leaving the bodies of eleven miners buried under the mining materials. Shortly after, analysts came back to the scene of the tragedy in order to carry with them some evidence. However, it should be noted that they could not access the section of the mine that was perceived as being responsible for the explosion because that section was highly dangerous. In this case, it was the south west main shaft section.

After the tragedy, the company had to pay one hundred and seventeen miners (who were not in the mine at the time of the tragedy) a severance package worth twelve weeks of their pay. Besides this, the company was faced with fifty two counts of operating a mine that was unsafe. On top of that, the mine became bankrupt in the subsequent year i.e. 1993. This development led to prevention of the cases from appearing in court. There were two mine managers on duty at that time and they were charged with criminal acts. However, these cases were dismissed after it had been established that there wasn't sufficient evidence to carry them out.

There was a commission of inquiry that had been set up by the Nova Scotia provincial government in order to analyze some of the safety issues that could have led to the disaster. In the year 1998, the commission handed in a report in which they recommended that all the mining laws within the region should be changed. They also asserted that there ought to be a re-examination of the labor laws within the country. However, the long term repercussions of the commission of inquiry are yet to be acted upon by the federal government through new legislations. (O'Malley, 2002)

Currently, there is memorial site in a park at Ne Glasgow where it is estimated that the undiscovered bodies of the eleven miners are yet to be discovered. There are coal storage silos at that location that serve as a reminder of the goings on at that point. It should be noted that as of may 1992, the mine shaft was permanently sealed immediately after the investigations had been completed.

Important issues raised by the case

This case was particularly important in highlighting how failure to comply with safety and regulatory requirements can be potentially disastrous. It is a well know fact that methane is a common component during the coal mining process. Consequently, one is likely to find methane gas inside coal seams and it is therefore incumbent upon managers within such mines to look for ways in which they can deal with these methane residues. However, it should be noted that the quantity of methane found in those coal seams may vary from place to place. The amount of methane found in the Plymouth seams is particularly high. This has been an established fact as far back as the eighteenth century. The situation is further compounded by existence of minimal ventilation in the mine. Westray was located underground and it was highly difficult to ensure that methane concentration levels were kept down. (O'Malley, 2002)

Before commencement of the Westray mine, the location had hosted close to eight mines. Consequently, the history surrounding this area had been ignored substantially during operation of the mine. Such occurrences include the eight explosions that occurred during the forty year lifetime of Allan mine. These were all vital warning signs of what could occur to the mine if due consideration was not given to the safety requirements.

The Westray disaster was also instrumental in revealing some of the negatives that can arise out of politically motivated actions. Provincial and federal governments supported this mine because it promised creation of jobs that were desperately needed in the area. Nova Scotia was one of the economically unstable areas at that time. Political leaders knew that if they supported such an initiative, then their popularity would increase since increased jobs could be attributed to them.

Additionally, this case was particularly instrumental in showing just what can happen when a certain project gets support from political big wigs as was the case with Westray. Historical warnings and advice from technical experts can be disregarded if one has backing from the right political figures. In fact one analyst asserted that when the Curragh Resources (the company that ran the mine) CEO announced that he was planning to open a mine in that area, politicians from Nova Scotia flocked towards him in the same manner that sea gulls move towards a beach.

One only has to look at the way this county was a political powerhouse in order to place the matter in context. One of the MPs of the Pictou County; in which the Westray mine was located had a large role to play in the promotional aspects, construction and working life of the mine and was known as Brian Mulroney. This individual went on to become a Prime Minister. There were also a number of notable figures that were instrumental in ensuring that the Westray mine was up and running and these include the Ottawa MP Elmer MacKay who was the Solicitor General in Canada. (O'Malley, 2002)

It is also particularly interesting to note that there were also a number of financial implications that this mine had within the county and province. First of all, the province of Nova Scotia through its provincial Minister of industry, trade and technology committed the province to a lease of approximately twelve million dollars. Alternatively, there was the option of obtaining two hundred and seventy five hundred thousand dollars for a period of fifteen years.

This mine was funded through the continual collaboration of the both provincial and federal efforts. The Federal government had guaranteed a contribution of one hundred million dollars worth of bank loans. On the other hand, the provincial government had contributed twelve million worth of subordinated loans. The provincial government also assured the owners of the mine that if there was any coal that had not been taken by the Power Corporation, then the provincial government would take it. The latter arrangement was agreed upon in the "Take or pay Agreement".

It should also be noted that prior to commencement of operations, the latter organization was described a "a state of the art" mine with all the latest equipment and technology required to mine coal. However, after occurrence of the explosion, it was found that these claims were highly invalid. It should also be noted that even during the production process, there were a number of ground control issues facing this particular company and most of them were related to the geological factors in the mine. (O'Malley, 2002)

The situation was further heightened by poor planning. In fact, the Commission of Inquiry that looked into the tragedy asserted that the dangerous environment in which this company was operating and the uncertainties that came with it should have put serious doubt into the feasibility of the venture.

Identification and prioritization of stakeholders and their rights and responsibilities

The party that was highly to blame for this incident was Curragh Resources which was the private company that managed the mine. This company was responsible for pushing forward its business agenda without looking into the repercussions that would emanate from such a project. The following are just some of the issues that this particular company was facing:

1) Government inspectors warned of inadequate ventilation

2) Unauthorized mine layouts

3) Unreliable procedures to make the gas non explosive

4) Disconnecting methane detectors in order to minimize interruptions during the production process

5) No safety training to employees

6) Placing miners in risky tunnels

All the latter responsibilities were to be carried out by the management of this company. They did not respect the rights of their respective employees thus leading to the occurrence of the tragedy.

Political figures also had a stake in this arrangement because they contributed towards the operation of this company so quickly without looking into the hazards that could emanate from it. The mine was opened in less than a week before the election and it was highly convenient for the aspirants to claim support to project that would provide three hundred jobs to residents. Federal and provincial government officials had the responsibility to do a thorough investigation of the project before pledging support for it or before investing so much into it. (O'Malley, 2002)

The latter categories of individuals were also partly responsible for this tragedy because of their failure to pass safety and compliance laws within the province. This was related to a lack of commitment to ethical procedures that is required in all governments. If this were the case, then federal agents would have been particularly instrumental in ensuring that all companies comply with the regulations and that workers are always protected.

Analysis of what happened in particular and how such "actions, omissions, mistakes, incompetence, apathy, cynicism, stupidity and neglect" could occur

The major issue that caused such a disaster was the lack of a safety ethic within the company. Management did not consider it a priority to institute a safety program or train their employees on how to conduct operations within such a place. Also, safety practices within this workplace were nowhere on sight. This was the reason why management would carry out compliance procedures only when they thought that they were due for inspection.

This issue was further heightened by the culture of complacency within the company. In fact, one can assert that this kind of attitude was the one that would eventually deteriorate into blatant disregard of basic safety procedures.

Managers in this respective company were reported as being highly intimidating to their respective employees. They indoctrinated these employees by overemphasizing the importance of high production of coal. They treated the safety of their workers as a minor issue that would detract them from achieving their ultimate objectives. (O'Malley, 2002)

There were a number of blame games that went on during the trail from different angels. One such example was the Premier who was a parliamentarian and a well known lobbyist of the Westray mine. This politician claimed that workers were to blame because they were the ones who turned off methane detectors. However, such an assertion cannot hold water because of the fact that employees were merely doing what they were told to do by top management. The latter category were annoyed by the frequent interruptions caused by these alarms and constantly ignored the potential danger that the methane detectors were trying to show them.

Additionally, if the miners had undergone safety training, they would have known just how dangerous it was to ignore the methane detectors or even to switch them off. These miners were indoctrinated into a culture of complacency by their managers who knew that they stood to benefit once employees had a false sense of security. Ethically speaking, the managers knew better but they did not take the time to educate their workers about it.

On top of the latter group, provincial inspectors were also highly complacent in the process of carrying out their duties. Time and time again, these individuals would find safety lapses within the mine but they would always ignore it. It was asserted that the source of the disaster was a spark that had been caused by a machine within the South western part of the mine. This spark was sufficient enough to ignite a flame that had been fueled by methane gas. The gas then leaked into other sections of the mine that were rich in coal dust and their union brought about the explosion.

The spark would have been harmless if only the mine's management and provincial authorities had not allowed coal dust levels to reach the dangerous levels that they had reached or if there was adequate ventilation in the mine to prevent the explosion.

Perspectives of traditional theories and what would satisfy the rules of justice

Consequentialism can be applied to the Westray tragedy owing to the fact that it values the importance of consequences. In this school of thought, acts are only right when they lead to positive consequences and that no consideration should be given to motives behind the act or the nature of the actor involved.

In utilitarian consequentialism theory, an act is morally justifiable when it maximizes the intrinsic good for all the people who will be affected by it or it reduces the bad that would be suffered by many. Furthermore, an act is defined as intrinsically good if it will increase pleasure and it is inherently bad if it causes pain. (Anscombe, 1990)

In this case, one can assert that because the Westray Tragedy resulted in a negative consequence i.e. the loss of twenty six mines, then it was unethical. However, almost all ethical theorists would agree that the latter tragedy was morally wrong. There are a number of acts that can be regarded as unethical prior to the explosion. First of all, the act of lobbying and supporting such a project was unethical because it led to negative consequences. The act of ignoring warning signs by provincial representatives was also unethical because it caused the tragedy and so was the act of issuing directives by employees.

From a Kantian Deontological perspective, acts are regarded as moral when there was a good will to perform them and also when one acts in accordance to duty. Since there is no deed that is intrinsically good according to Kant, then the only thing one can depend on to judge actions is one's motives. In the case of the mining tragedy, it can be said that the employees who yielded to their employer' demand on switching off the methane alarms were merely acting in good faith because they wanted to increase productions and it was their duty to follow their superior's instructions.

Conversely, one can argue that top management and owners of the mine were acting for the good of others since their motives were to offer jobs. However, Kant brings in the concept of acting in accordance to one's moral duty; an aspect which these two categories of people failed to do. They knew that it was their moral duty to ensure that the safety of their workers was a priority. However, because they failed to carry that out, then it can be asserted that they engaged in unethical behavior.

In virtue ethics, one's actions can be treated as truly virtuous when that respective person acts in accordance with their purpose which Aristotle divided into both intellectual and moral. When one examines the Westray Tragedy, it is possible to see that choosing to support such a project by provincial and federal politicians was an act that opposed both these virtues. The latter individuals chose fame and popularity rather than truly examining their purpose as leaders.

In ethics of care, great emphasis is given to relationships in that human beings are always dependent on one another in order to achieve their respective interests. Additionally, individuals who may be vulnerable to one's actions need to be considered depending on the level of that individual's vulnerability to one's actions. Secondly, there should be a consideration of what extent others can be affected by one's actions. In this theory, it is highly necessary to look into some of the contextual details affecting certain parties so as to promote those interests. (Hare, 1999)

In application of ethics of care to the tragedy, one can see that a number of parties failed to consider other people's interests. First of all, the company owners failed to consider how dangerous their actions of opening the mine would be to the miners given the history of the place this made their vulnerability levels extremely high. Additionally, top managers failed to consider the interests of the employees when they chose to under look safety requirements.

A Canadian Mining Industry Plan

In order to ensure that a disaster of such a nature does not occur again, it is essential for the Mining Industry to appreciate the importance of ethics in safety and protection of workers. First of all, the provincial and federal agents should only be allowed to invest in Mining projects after a thorough investigation of the safety of the project's premises. Additionally, political figures should be allowed to lobby for these projects owing to the fact that they could be carried away by some of the problems surrounding this matter.

Also, greater precedence should be given to safety rather than to profit making ventures because lives can never be less important than money. In this regard, any warning signs or investigation that shows a lack of compliance needs to be proved immediately. When the company under consideration indicates that they have failed to comply, then they should be shut down immediately. The words of technical experts need to take more precedence than they do today.

Conclusion

The Westray Tragedy was one of the saddest examples of what can happen when human beings place greater precedence on corporate gain rather than their moral actions. In order to prevent occurrence of such events in the future, it will be crucial to enforce these regulations through proper legislature and ground then in ethical theories.

References

O'Malley, M. (2002): Westray Here's what happened, retrieved from http://www.cbcnewsonline.com/ accessed on 31 January 2008

Hare, M. (1999): Moral Thinking; Oxford Press

Anscombe, E. (1990): Modern Moral philosophy; Blackwell Publishers

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Grace OMalley, Granuaile, Ghrainne Mhaol, The Sea Queen of Connaught - she was known by many monikers - she was a pirate, seafarer, trader and chieftain in sixteenth century Ireland. She was born in 1530 in Co. Mayo, the daughter of Eoghan Dubhdara OMhaille, chieftain of the OMhaille clan who were a seafaring family who taxed all those who fished off their coast. When she was a young girl, her father refused to allow her to sail, she dressed in boys clothes and cut off her long hair to prove she could sail, hence earning her the name Grainne Mhaol or Bald Grace.

At the age of sixteen she married Donal an-Chogaidh OFlaherty, heir to the leadership of the OFlaherty clan, an excellent alliance as Donal was expected to one day rule Connaught. She bore him three children but Donal was later killed in battle, Grainne retuned to OMhaille territory taking many of OFlaherty who remained loyal to her. In 1566 she married Richard an-Iarainn Burke, reputedly to satisfy her deisre for greater holdings and prestige. They married under Brehon law for one year certain, after the year had elapsed Grainne dismissed him and seized Rockfleet Castle. 

Around the time of Donal OFlahertys death, reports began to pour into the English administration accusing OMhaille of piracy. She was conducting her operations from her base on Clare Island, she recruited fighting men from both Ireland and Scotland, terrorising ships and attacking castles all along the Western and Southern coasts of Ireland. The Tudor conquest of Ireland in the mid-sixteenth century began to encroach upon the power of Grainne. In 1593, when members of her family were taken captive, she sailed to London to petition their release. She gained an audience with Queen Elizabeth, who was apparently very taken with her and granted their release and other concessions in return for a guarantee that she cease her support for Irish rebellions and piracy against English ships. Grainne agreed but when the British Crown reneged on some of their promises, she returned to piracy and rebellion.

O'Malley raises money for same-sex marriage campaign

O'Malley raises money for same-sex marriage campaign

Gov. Martin O'Malley urged supporters of same-sex marriage to "call on the goodness" of their opponents as they try to gain more votes in the General Assembly and more allies throughout the state.

Speaking at an Equality Maryland fundraiser in Chevy Chase last night, the governor said that the issue should be viewed from the eyes of the children of same-sex couples. He said children across the state should grow up in households governed by the same sets of laws.

"It is through their eyes, the eyes of the children of gay and lesbian couples, that I have viewed this issue," O'Malley said. "This is all about the protection of families."

"Even people who do not yet agree with us on this issue, there is a lot of goodness in each and every individual and we need to engage in that goodness," O'Malley said. "We need to call people to that goodness."
The governor gave a far more impassioned plea for the bill during the fundraiser than he did two months ago at a Friday afternoon news conference when he announced that he would put his name on a same-sex marriage bill. This time several in the audience complimented his speech and he earned two rounds of applause when he finished.

* Photo credit: Governor's press office

The event raised at least $12,000  and drew around 300 supporters, organizers said.

So many members of the General Assembly attended that one speaker joked that the group might have enough votes in the room to pass the bill. Last year the controversial measure passed in the Senate but vote counters in the House believed they were a few votes shy and pulled it from the floor. 

Also speaking at last night's event were Lt. Gov. Anthony Brown and Attorney General Douglas Gansler -- two possible gubernatorial candidates in 2014. They both sounded optimistic that the bill would pass next session, and both looked ahead to the next hurdle: A statewide referendum on the legislation.

(Two other possible gubernatorial contenders were invited but did not come. Comptroller Peter Franchot was out of town, though his chief of staff attended. Howard County Executive Ken Ulman was not there.)

The 2012 ballot is now set to include a question on whether illegal immigrants should receive college tuition discounts that are available to legal residents. And most believe that should same-sex marriage pass in Maryland, it would be quickly petitioned to the ballot for voters to decide.

Gansler even took it a step further, predicting that if  the issue lost at the ballot box, it could re-emerge as a legal fight if a gay couple tried to challenge the current law. Same-sex marriage advocates already tried to do that, but were rebuffed by Maryland's highest court.

Brown weighed in too, saying that there will be "a coalition-driven effort targeted in every county" to convince voters to support the legislation on the ballot. "The effort in 2012 will require a lot of hard work," he said. "It will require a lot of us to redouble our efforts."

The event was held at a no-frills community center and guests enjoyed wine and cheese and looked photos from supporters' marriage ceremonies. The only extravagance was the dessert: A multi-layered white wedding cake.